Snake thing Essay - 1338 Words

Night Every author has a different ways to portray a certain scene and the different elements used can be identify in Elie Wiesel and Art Spiegelman’s ‘hanging’ scene. For example, in Night, the reader uses his imagination to create the images of the horrific events, while in Maus, the images are ‘fed’ to him, giving a different some sort of surprise or shock. Depending on the situation, one novel’s technique might be more emotionally powerful at times than the other. One element is ‘imagery’, and that technique in Maus compares with Night because Maus is a graphic novel with explanations and Night is a literary novel where one draws out his own picture in his mind. With Night, it all depends on the person’s imagination and how they†¦show more content†¦In the next fifth and sixth panels of Maus, we just see feet in the air and our minds automatically trace back to the hanging. Those feet could be jumping, but the way they drop down show that there is no life left in the bodies. On page 86, we see and feel the grief of the Jews and how morbid the atmosphere is. There is the technique of cinematography because in the foreground the reader can see the present situation while in the background, there is a flash-back and the faces of the hanged appear. In Night, the only part where we read about the aftermath of both hangings is when there is the comment about how the soup tasted. â€Å"I remember that on that evening, th e soup tasted better than ever†¦Ã¢â‚¬  for the first hanging, but on the second, â€Å"That night, the soup tasted of corpses†. These are powerful words which draw disgusting images in our minds. In Maus, Siegelman can almost rely on the illustrations to explain a situation, while in Night, Wiesel is forced to write in a way that the words become illustrations in our heads and almost become a reality. This brings me onto my second element of ‘layout’, and this technique in Night contrasts greatly with Maus because Night all depends on how well written the story is, while in Maus, the illustrations are there to help the reader understandShow MoreRelated Eyes in Steinbeck’s The Snake Essay1165 Words   |  5 PagesEyes in Steinbeck’s The Snake Eyes, both human and animal, appear as a predominant motif in John Steinbeck’s â€Å"The Snake.† Eyes serve not only a descriptive function, but signify two different modes of looking. One mode, embodied by Doctor Phillips, is scientific; the other, embodied by his female visitor, is bestial. Doctor Phillips uses sight to exert control over his environment; the woman’s way of looking proves more powerful, however, by achieving a truer understanding of the irrationalRead MoreAnalysis Of Balzac And The Little Chinese Seamstress By Dai Sijie1381 Words   |  6 Pagesrock above the watering hole. Luo will never encounter the rocks resting at the bottom, the hidden bumps that only the Little Seamstress will see. Only she will come across these rough patches, these things that Luo cannot see, and he will always remain blissfully unaware. You can liken them to the things that he makes her do, like forcing her to listen to him read. He will never know how she truly f eels about it. â€Å"You’d come across stones that were sharp and jagged, with barbed edges ready to pierceRead MoreAnalysis Of Paul Lisicky s A Little Murder And Bunny 931 Words   |  4 Pagesthe causeway can go up with it. The spiders, the fleas, the rats, the snakes: any living creature that lives in the leaves. They can burn up too.†( At the end of her thinking process, Lisicky reveals that while you think Ruby is a nice women to volunteer for all these organizations, Ruby is actually thinking of these certain thoughts while volunteering, all these obnoxious thoughts but she does have a soft spot for the snake at her yard. Another important character that should be talked about underRead MoreA Trip to Tioman Island757 Words   |  3 Pagesfirst get to the dive shop as that is my ‘home’ at the resort. Its full of familiar faces, things and situations. People studying to be divers, dive schedules, people gearing up for their next dives, or just si tting chilling between dives. This is where I feel most at home. One of the highlights of my trips to Tioman is snake catching. Near the rock formation is a small river. The best time to find snakes is dusk. We go about this armed with sticks and buckets torches, courage and determinationRead MoreYoung Goodman Brown Symbolism Essay1205 Words   |  5 Pagesrepresents a number of things in the story like evil lies within all of us. When Goodman Brown first had a meeting in the woods, Satan is described as an older version of Brown, apparently in the same rank of life as Goodman Brown, and bearing a considerable resemblance to him, though more in expression than features. Still they might have been taken for father and son. In human form, Satan carries with him, a walking stick in the shape of a snake. Since the story of Adam and Eve, snakes have been symbolicRead MoreAnalysis Of Emily Dickinson s A Narrow Fellow 1488 Words   |  6 Pagessonnet â€Å"A Narrow Fellow in the Grass† by Emily Dickinson is a poem that deals with her inner sel f. The poem was wrote in 1865 under anonymously under the title â€Å"The Snake†. The style of writing that Dickinson uses was more on how natural world is portrayed by examines one of nature’s creatures that human do not like, and that the snake. However in this poem it looks into her inner thought about how life and nature can cause one to have bitter and sweet emotional. The poem shows her reflection, aspirationsRead MoreReview Of Tempest Volcano 1602 Words   |  7 Pagessending the snake flying and me falling. I hit the ground with a thud, only to find that I couldn’t move. I was paralyzed. The snake got up, typed in a passcode on a hidden key pad, and a hidden door openED. pyro jumped over me and flew to the snake. The snake was so startled that when pyro sank his fangs into it, it didn’t notice. We were about to enter the room when the snake got back up. I was helpless and it was coming straight for me. I looked it in the eye and threw the only thing I had at itRead MoreWomen Of Color In The Slavery Era Were An Essential To1355 Words   |  6 Pageslaundries. All of a sudden, she found something strange in the pile of Sykes clothes. She found that Sykes was trying to scare Delia’s with a snake while he just stared nearby the door. Delia had to deal with Sykes representation of cheating with another woman, unemployed and an abusive relationship. Towards the end of the story, Delia stayed silent about the snakes being in the house and later strike on Sykes death. Many African American women in the 18th century took the role play of the gender scriptRead MoreWhat I Have Learned Since Becoming A Snake Owner1355 Words   |  6 Pages Title: Thanatos, An Everglades Corn Snake Introduction: What I have learned since becoming a snake owner. Thesis statement: Owning a serpent has resulted in my learning the differences from other pets including other reptiles as well as being an eye opener to handling and care requirements. There are many snakes to be found throught out the world: Rattlers, Asps, Boas, Pythons, Anacondas, and many others. However, they are divided into two main categories classified as venomous and constrictorRead More snake bites Essay2392 Words   |  10 Pagessnake bites Bob was walking in the woods one day when his life was put in great danger. He had just stepped over a log when he felt a sharp sting on the back of his leg. He looked down and saw two small puncture wounds on his leg. The stinging sensation instantly went throughout his body and that was when he saw a snake still laying beside the log he had just stepped over. Bob had many questions running through his head. He didn’t know what to do. He didn’t know if the snake was poisonous

Military Accountability Essay - 2245 Words

Being late does not make one important. Tardiness is a very unattractive quality when it comes to most aspects of one’s life: family functions, meetings, interviews, and especially a job. While a family may forgive tardiness, a job will not. Being late once or twice in one’s life is unavoidable. Being consistently tardy makes one unreliable and shows a lack of respect for other people’s time and obligations. Being late tells others that one person can be waited on, while everyone else can’t. People do not like when their feelings were not taken into consideration, when they took the time to consider others. Punctuality is a very important part of military life for several reasons. one reason is that if someone is late for a patrol†¦show more content†¦What could have been done the night before? Punctuality is a habit. It’s a matter of creating the routine and sticking with the routine. Punctual people will be winners everywhere and will be one step ahead of the others. Planning ahead will contribute to being punctual, less stress, and the ability to navigate around unforeseen circumstances. This all helps avoid difficult situations as far as time is concerned. This show of respect will also command respect from others. Someone who shows, over and over, that they are the master of their time is someone who will be taken seriously in areas far removed from time management. That foresight and adaptability that gets you where you need to be, when you need to be there, tells the people around you that you can handle whatever is thrown at you. When it comes to the military certain things are automatically expected of a person. One of the most important expectations is time management and being on time. Every day there are any number of places a soldier is required to be at a certain time and as the old saying goes, â€Å"if you’re not fifteen minutes early, you’re late no matter the situation.† Some soldiers understand the importance of showing up fifteen minutes prior to an event or scheduled activity. To others, it makes no sense at all. Extreme as it may sound, when dealing with the number of people thatShow MoreRelatedAccountability: Military and Time Essay1711 Words   |  7 PagesAccountability†¦. What does it mean? The responsibility of an individual or organization to account for its activities, accept responsibility for them, and to clearly show the results. The army definition of accountability is â€Å"the obligation imposed by law or lawful order or regulation on an officer or other person for keeping accurate record of property, documents, funds or soldiers†. Accountability should not be taken lightly, it is important for NCOs and squad leaders to have accountability overRead MoreWhat Is the Importance of Accountability in the Military and in the Work Place?1461 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is the importance of accountability in the military and in the work place? What is accountability by definition: (Department Of Defense) The obligation imposed by law or lawful order or regulation on an officer or other person for keeping accurate record of property, documents, or funds. The person having this obligation may or may not have actual possession of the property, documents, or funds. Accountability is concerned primarily with records, while responsibility is concerned primarily withRead MoreAccountability in the Military Essay1516 Words   |  7 PagesAccountability What is accountability? 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Why is accountability important to the Army? Accountability isRead MoreTypes of Accountability812 Words   |  4 PagesBruce Stone, O.P. Dwivedi, and Joseph G. Jabbra list 8 types of accountability, namely: moral, administrative, political, managerial, market, legal/judicial, constituency relation, and professional.[13] Leadership accountability cross cuts many of these distinctions. [edit] Political accountability Political accountability is the accountability of the government, civil servants and politicians to the public and to legislative bodies such as congress or parliament. In a few cases, recall electionsRead MoreEssay on Accountability in Army885 Words   |  4 PagesA Soldier’s Accountability A soldier of the United States Army has many values that are set forth in the â€Å"Soldier’s Creed.† The Soldier’s Creed states: I am an American Soldier. I am a Warrior and a member of a team. I serve the people of the United States and live the Army Values. I will always place the mission first. I will never accept defeat. I will never quit. I will never leave a fallen comrade. I am disciplined, physically and mentally tough, trained and proficient in myRead MoreGood Governance in Pakistan1667 Words   |  7 Pagesdemocratic setup 3. Military intrusion 4. Feudal indulgence 5. Massive Corruption 6. Constitutional crises 7. Institutional clashes 8. Mismanagement of resources 9. Lack of Accountability 10. Over Exploitation of funds 11. Restrictions on media 12. Ethnic conflicts 13. Secterianism 14. Extremism 6 Essentials of Good Governance 1. Public Participation 2. National Integration 3. Political stability 4. Constitutional supremacy 5. Institutional supremacy 6. Unrestricted media 7. No military intervention 8Read MorePublic Administration: Accountability2145 Words   |  9 PagesPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Assignment SEMESTER 2 2012/2013 PSCI 2523 INSTRUCTOR â€Å"ACCOUNTABILITY† | NAME | MATRIC NO. | SECTION | 1 | | 1 | | | | | INTRODUCTION. 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Mobil Oil Australia Wellcome International â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Mobil Oil Australia Wellcome International? Answer: Introduction Contract law, is a common law, which holds significance due to its common use in daily life of every person, which not only includes the organizations, but also the common man (Mau, 2010). And due to this significance, a number of cases are made on yearly basis whereby on or other aspect of a contract is contested. At times the decision is very clear, and at other instances, making this decision becomes a difficult task (Ayres and Klass, 2012). One of such cases where the complexities of contract law were taken into consideration was the case of Mobil Oil Australia Ltd v Wellcome International Pty Ltd (1998) 81 FCR 475 (Jade, 2017). In the following parts, this case has been discussed whereby the issues raised in this case, the relevant laws, the arguments of the parties on the basis of the law and the judgement of the court has been highlighted. But before doing that, a brief background of the case is given. Factual background Mobil had told its franchises those franchisees, who lives up to ninety percent of the performance standards, would be rewarded pursuant to the scheme known as the Circle of Excellence, over duration of six years. The reward in this case had not been discussed in a clear manner; however, it essentially translated into the extension of the tenure of the franchisee with no costs. Marketing, just after four years, Mobil abandoned its scheme, even when different franchisees were spending both time and money for living up to these standards. And as a result of this, franchisees of Mobil initiated a case against it. The case went to the trial judge where it was established that the abandonment of the scheme resulted in a situation where the franchisees could not complete their performance. The trial court held that due to this action of Mobil, there is a need to treat the franchisees as entitled to the extension of their tenure and it would be treated as if the condition of the scheme had been fulfilled. However, an appeal was made from this ruling to the Full Court (Jade, 2017). There were a number of issues which were raised in this case. The first one in this regard was whether or not, a contract was formed in this case, due to the offer, acceptance and consideration not being established. Further, whether or not there was a presence of unilateral contract and whether the same could be revoked. Lastly, the issue was raised regarding whether or not, the concept of estoppel could be used in this case. Relevant Law A contract can be defined as a promise exchanged between two or more parties, for undertaking a particular promise, which becomes the obligation of the contract, and this promise covers one party doing something and the other party fulfilling the requirement of consideration (Clarke and Clarke, 2016). A contract can be formed in a written and an oral manner, where only the mode of forming the contract differs, but an equally binding contract is created in both. In written contract, the terms are written and signed by the parties, whereas in oral contract, the terms are merely exchanged orally. In order to form any contract, some components have to be present, included in which are the offer, acceptance, consideration, intention, capacity and clarity (Blum, 2007). An offer is made by one party, to another, which contains certain offered terms. It is crucial that the offer is clearly differentiated from an invitation to treat. An invitation to treat represents that the parties to the contract want to go forward with the negotiations on the basis of which the contract is to be formed. An offer, on the other hand, represents that the parties want to start the contract and have the intention of being bound legally (Andrews, 2015). In case of a conflict between whether an offer has been made and an invitation to treat is made, the facts of the case have to be considered. In order for an offer to be made, it is significant that it is clearly stated, i.e., the terms which have been offered is properly stated and is not vague (Latimer, 2012). The next step in formation of contract is acceptance. When a party has been made offer to, the party has to be accept the offer in the manner in which it was made. The acceptance has to be properly communicated to the offer making party and the date of acceptance is deemed as the date on which the communication reaches the offer making party (Marson and Ferris, 2015). The unilateral contracts, are however formed, where by the acceptance is not communicated, and instead, it is acted upon. In other words, the performance of the unilateral offer results in the unilateral contract being formed, where the performance becomes acceptance (Stone and Devenney, 2017). The next requirement for forming a contract is the component of consideration. Consideration is the amount which is paid to the other party for undertaking the performance of the contract as per the promise made (Gibson and Fraser, 2014). The amount of consideration is to be mutually decided between the parties, and is acceptable so long as it has an economic value. The other needed components include the intention of the parties to create and enter into lawful relations, the clarity regarding the terms of the contract, and the parties to have the contractual capacity (Mulcahy, 2008). Unilateral contracts were a key issue of this case and for this matter, different cases were referred to. With this concept, the revocation was also something which was looked into in this case. Revocation of a contract refers to the contract being terminated by one party. In unilateral contracts, the issues are raised when the attempt is made to revoke the offer, once the performance of the contract has started, but the same has not been financial (Lambiris and Griffin, 2016). One of the cases which were referred to in this case was the matter of Australian Woollen Mills Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1954) 92 CLR 424. The court held that neither consideration was present in this case, nor was the legal intention (Australian Contract Law, 2010). In the case of Errington v Errington [1952] 1 KB 290, the father had purchased a dwelling home for his newly wedded son. The purchase money was borrowed by the father from building society where he mortgaged the property. The father promised his son and daughter-in-law that he would transfer the property to them if they paid the instalments of the property. They did so, but left the property after some time, so the widowed mother continued to live there, and sought possession. However, her claim failed as the acceptance of unilateral contracts is done on full performance only. And the court also stated that the unilateral contract could not be revoked once the performance was started (E-Law Resources, 2017). The claims were also made based on promissory estoppel, which stops the promise making party from going back on the promise which has been made by them. A breach of contract was also claimed in this case which denotes that a promise which was made under the contract had been contravened (Australian Contract Law, 2013). The claim was also made for violation of section 52 and 59 of the erstwhile Trade Practices Act, 1974 (Cth), however, during the appeal, only section 52 was refereed to. This section relates to misleading or deceptive conduct, whereby a restriction has been placed on the businesses from indulging in such conduct which has the effect of misleading or deceiving the consumers, or does actually mislead or deceive (Jade, 2017). Application and the legal arguments of parties The franchisees made an argument that an offer was made in this case, which was a unilateral offer and which could be accepted by performing upon the terms of this unilateral offer. They relied upon the convention being attended by Stumbles, where offer and representation were both found in his address. This address was the one in which the 90% performance thing being linked to the reward being given to the franchisees was made. They highlighted that they had relied on this very statement made and that this was an offer made by Mobil, in which, by performing better, the acceptance would be made to this offer and the consideration was the reward which had to be given. This very statement was also claimed to be misleading by the franchisees, resulting in a breach of section 52 of the Trade Practices Act (Jade, 2017). Mobil on the other hand highlighted the clarity of terms as cancelling out the claims of the franchisees. They stated that the statement made at the convention was ambiguous and vague. A prerequisite in any offer is that it needs to be clear, but here the statement did not clarify about the reward. The proposal was very vague which could not give rise to a contractual obligation. Hence, an ambiguous statement could not be deemed as unilateral offer. Mobil relied on the case of Australian Woollen Mills Pty Ltd v Commonwealth and stated that they had no legal intention of making this statement as a unilateral contract. Further, even if a unilateral offer was deemed to be made in this case, the case of Errington v Errington allows Mobil to revoke the contract before the same was fully performed (Jade, 2017). The issue of consideration was also needs to be highlighted. The offer cannot be claimed to have been made as there was no consideration for the promise which has been alleged to have been made in this case. The reward was a vague term and for a consideration to be valid under contract, it needs to be clearly stated as the terms of the contract need to be clear. With regards to the breach of contract, Mobil stated that since a contract had not been formed for the lack of its needed elements, a breach of contract could not be cited by the plaintiff. The franchisees also have been wrong in stopping Mobil on basis of promissory estoppel as a promise was not made; it was simply construed to have been made by the franchisees, which was not right. The claim of breach of section 52 was also not present as per Mobil as the statement was made on reasonable grounds and was not done with the intention of misleading or deceiving anyone. Further, there was also an absence of the franchisees in re covering loss on the basis of reliance on this point. There was no promise which could give rise to a claim of promissory estoppel. Hence, this claim also needs to be quashed (Jade, 2017). Judgment When the matter went before the Full Court, they disagreed with the ruling given by the trial court in this matter. For each of the issue raised by the franchisees, they gave their verdict. With regards to the claim that an offer had been made in this case, the court stated that an offer was not made by Mobil to its franchisees. This was due to the fact that the terms of the communication were both vague and uncertain and it meant that there was a lack of certainty, where the scheme was just in its developmental stage (Paterson, Robertson and Duke, 2012). With regards to the unilateral contracts and its revocation, the court stated that there was no universal rule regarding revocation of a unilateral contract and so, there was a need to make the decision on case to case basis. In this case, the franchisees had not suffered a detriment in any manner, when they improved upon their own performance and so, there was a clear lack of real consideration. And they concluded that an offer which was made in return to the performance of an act, which was like any other offer, could be revoked at any point of time (Paterson, Robertson and Duke, 2012). Finally, the court took under the issue raised by franchisees to apply the concept of promissory estoppel. For this purpose, the court stated that it was essential to be shown that the defendant had encouraged an assumption that a specific lawful interest or a relationship would be created from the statement which was made at the convention. There was a clear lack of the details and the elements required to form a lawful relationship in this case. The generalised commitment of the defendant to finding a way could not be deemed as an assumption that a lawful relationship would be created. Hence, an emphasis was given on the creation or the encouragement by defendant of an assumption that an interest is being granted to the plaintiff. Hence, as there was no element of assumption in this case, the doctrine of estoppel was not raised in this case (Paterson, Robertson and Duke, 2012). References Andrews, N. (2015) Contract Law. 2nd ed. UK: Cambridge University Press Australian Contract Law. (2010) Australian Woollen Mills Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth. [Online] Australian Contract Law. Available from: https://www.australiancontractlaw.com/cases/awm.html [Accessed on: 16/09/17] Australian Contract Law. (2013) Mobil Oil Australia v Wellcome International. [Online] Australian Contract Law. Available from: https://www.australiancontractlaw.com/cases/mobil.html [Accessed on: 16/09/17] Ayres, I., and Klass, G. (2012) Studies in Contract Law. 8th ed. New York: Foundation Press Blum, B.A. (2007) Contracts: Examples Explanations. 4th ed. New York: Aspen management. Clarke, P., and Clarke, J (2016) Contract Law: Commentaries, Cases and Perspectives. 3rd ed. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press. E-Law Resources. (2017) Errington v Errington Woods [1952] 1 KB 290 Court of Appeal. [Online] E-Law Resources. Available from: https://www.e-lawresources.co.uk/Errington-v-Errington-Woods.php [Accessed on: 16/09/17] Gibson, A., and Fraser, D. (2014) Business Law 2014. 8th ed. Melbourne: Pearson Education Australia. Jade. (2017) Federal Court of Australia. [Online] Jade. Available from: https://jade.io/article/114770 [Accessed on: 16/09/17] Lambiris, M., and Griffin, L. (2016) First Principles of Business Law 2016. Sydney: CCH. Latimer, P. (2012) Australian Business Law 2012. 31st ed. Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. Marson, J., and Ferris, K. (2015) Business Law. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mau, S.D. (2010) Contract Law in Hong Kong: An Introductory Guide. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Mulcahy, L. (2008) Contract Law in Perspective. 5th ed. Oxon: Routledge. Paterson, J.M., Robertson, A., and Duke, A. (2012) Principles of Contract Law. 4th ed. Rozelle, NSW: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia. Stone, R., and Devenney, J. (2017) The Modern Law of Contract. 12th ed. Oxon: Routledge.

The Myth of Buildeus Essay Example For Students

The Myth of Buildeus Essay Buildeus was born when a rogue flash of lightening from the god Zeus struck a sapling and turned it into a real boy. Zeus needed a new craftsman for his lighting because it just wasnt good enough so Zeus gave Buildeus powers to create many a things from toys to airplanes. The only problem with Buildeus was that he was made of wood so fire was his worst enemy, even a small spark can light his body instantly. Buildeus was raised by a blind couple that lived in the woods. At age seven he had built 100s of different tools for the couple to use, things like a pocket knifes, hammers, and anything he could get his wooden hands on, and did chores such as rebuilding the house, cooking, cleaning, amazingly everything he did was perfect. When Buildeus was 15 years old, the couple decided an education was the smartest choice for Buildeus so they traveled by foot for 11 miles and upon finding the first school of Lake Ozwego joined and enrolled. Buildeus being different, was treated very badly by the other students, he was called freak, ugly, and was often brought near lighters for the fun of the other students. The worst of them all was the evil janitaur which lived in boiler room, the janitaur constantly disrespected Buildeus, forcing the poor boy to clean up messes he didnt make and create evil things for him. Janitaur also hurt and punished many of the other students and was hated by all. The only way for the students to calm him was offering 7 students every year into detention. Principal Minos did not care, for he was an evil conservative bent on an only human school. The only thing keeping Buildeus alive was his love for Betsy Crocker the only girl carpenter in the school which treated him like a normal person. We will write a custom essay on The Myth of Buildeus specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Buildeus decided to leave and go to live with his brethren for mediation and wisdom within the forest. He prayed to his creator on what to do, and so Zeus told him Son, with your amazing craftsmanship change yourself, become newer and better and smarter. If they dont accept you then talk to me and Ill set em straight Doing as he was told made himself into Buildeus 2.0 returned to school and found out that another school was being made. Now was the time for Buildeus to shine, he offered to help but the janitaur refused to let this wooden boy work. While the janitaur was in the boiler room Buildeus challenged him to a wrestling contest, the janitaur strapped on his wrestling horns and could be easily mistaken for a man bull you could say. Within the boiler room, which spewed fire like the underworld Hades, the wrestling took place. The heat was almost too much for Buildeus, but he fought on. The janitaur tried to defeat him but Buildeus 2.0 was to strong and defeated the evil janitaur. After his defeat the janitaur screamed out Youll never get out of my labyrinth of pipes, bwahahaha and fainted but Buildeus shirt had a loose string that caught onto the door handle and slowly found his way out. Now confident in himself, other people realized his change and effort to help the new school and stopped making fun of him and started becoming friends. The other students realized that its whats on the inside that counts, and that he destroyed the Janitaur. Buildeus worked effortlessly on this school; as long as sun was in the sky Buildeus worked. Slowly it seemed, the supplies were running low, on the final day of its creation, they needed just a plank more of wood and all the funds were gone so Buildeus reverted to his natural state and sacrificed himself in order to save the school. Though Buildeus may not have been immortal while living, Buildeus was immortal to the eyes of the students of the school and is now a part of the school as to this day.

The Depresion essays

The Depresion essays The Great depression was in full effect by the 1930s, which effected millions of people and hurt the economy until World War 2. The depression brought on an eight year span of poverty, low wages, distrust in banking and government due to bad business, foreign and domestic. Faced with difficult time and a leader, who didnt help the situation until it was to late, people were looking for help to set the economy rolling again, The economy was clearly in recession by 1929. The economy was dealt a heavy blow on Black Thursday, October 24 when prices in the stock market plummeted, then again on Black Tuesday, October 29. The crash of the stock market had effects all over the nation, because banks had invested heavily in the stock market, banks were forced to close, which then effected the population. When the banks closed, in this time there were no insurance on the security of the banks money, people lost all there savings causing people to lose trust in banking. As more and more banks started to close people got scared and scrambled to their banks to get their savings out, only to find that the vaults were empty, which encouraged people not to spend, invest, and put their money in the banks. Study shows, if the people would have spent and invested their money that alone, would have been enough to bring the country out of the depression, but because of the distrust in the banking industry the depression k ept moving forward. Although the unstable banking industry was a large factor in the decline of the economy it wasnt the only reason. The unequal distribution of wealth underlined the weakness of the economy, where the upper- and middle-income families got more of the national income then the lower class and minority ethnicities. This hurt the economy because money wasnt spent where it needed to pull the economy out of recession. The skewed distribution of wealth allowed the top 5 percent of the upper- and m...

8 top health care jobs for 2018

8 top health care jobs for 2018 Of all the industries growing like crazy over the past few years, few have seen as much growth (or projected growth in the coming years) as health care. It’s a confluence of social issues- growing population (particularly aging Baby Boomers), more attention being paid to self-care, and more attention generally being paid in public to the health and wellness needs of the general population. Industry growth means health care professionals of all kinds are needed. Whether you’re trying to decide where to focus your education to start a career in allied health or you’re looking for a job that you can build without going to med school or nursing school, there are lots of opportunities. Let’s look at some of the fastest-growing health care jobs for the coming year.1. Registered NurseWhen you hear the word â€Å"shortage† to describe a health care field, it’s usually in reference to nurses. Nurses are one of the main backbones of the health care ind ustry, and there is always a huge demand for competent, qualified, and compassionate professionals to step into the nursing world. Registered nurses (RNs) coordinate and provide direct patient care, assess patient condition, record patients’ medical data, administer treatments and medication as prescribed by a physician, develop treatment plans, operate and monitor medical equipment, perform diagnostic tests, and educate patients and their families on follow-up care. Nurses can be found virtually anywhere there’s a medical facility, including hospitals, doctors’ offices, home health care services, nursing homes, schools, clinics, or health-focused government agencies.What you’ll need: RNs typically hold a bachelor’s degree in nursing (BSN), an associate’s degree in nursing (ADN), or a certificate from an accredited nursing program. In all states, nurses need to be licensed, so be sure to check your own state’s requirements for licensi ng (including any standardized tests like the NCLEX).How much they make: According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), registered nurses make a median annual salary of $68,450, or $32.91 per hour.For more on how to snag registered nurse jobs:Create A Winning Registered Nurse Resume!How Long Does it Take to Become a Nurse?2. Nurse PractitionerNurse practitioners, also known as Advance Practice Registered Nurses (APRNs) are nurses who are located midway between registered nurses and physicians. In addition to standard nursing duties, nurse practitioners often have increased ability to coordinate primary patient care, prescribe medications, order tests, and develop treatment plans for patients.What you’ll need: Nurse practitioners need to have a master’s degree (or higher) in an advanced nursing program, as well as pass a national exam. What a nurse practitioner can do, as well as licensing requirements, can vary by state, so be sure you’re aware of your own state’s requirements and policies on nurse practitioners.How much they make: According to the BLS, nurse practitioners make a median annual salary of $107,460, or $51.67 per hour.For more on how to snag nurse practitioner jobs:What Type of Nurse Are You?6 Reasons You Should Seriously Consider Becoming a Nurse Practitioner3. Home Health AideHome health aides are caregivers who travel to patients’ homes to provide medical and daily living care. Patients may include elderly or chronically ill patients who are not living in specific nursing care facilities, but need help with daily activities. A home health aide’s duties typically include medical tasks like checking vital signs and administering medication or prescribed treatments, as well as assisting with daily life tasks like walking, using the bathroom, feeding, dressing, or leaving the house. This is a field that is growing even more than other health careers, with a rapidly expanding population of older ad ults who need help, but want to stay in their own homes.What you’ll need: Home health aides typically have a high school diploma or equivalent certificate. Most home health agencies provide on-the-job training for aides, though a background in medical terminology or health care can be helpful.How much they make: According to the BLS, home health aides make a median annual salary of $22,170, or $10.66 per hour.For more on how to snag home health aide jobs:How to Write a Strong Home Health Aide Resume (Examples Included)What Does a Home Health Aide Do?Top 7 Healthcare Careers That Don’t Require A Graduate Degree4. Physician AssistantPhysician assistants (PAs) are medical professionals who work as part of a team with physicians, surgeons, nurses, and other health care professionals. Their duties include examining, ordering, and analyzing diagnostic tests; performing treatments like setting broken bones and giving shots; prescribing medicine; developing patient care plans; and educating patients and their families. PAs typically work in hospitals, clinics, or doctors’ offices.What you’ll need: Physician assistants typically hold a master’s degree from an accredited Physician Assistant program. All states require PAs to be licensed, so be sure to know your own state’s requirements for certification.How much they make: According to the BLS, physician assistants make a median annual salary of $101,480, or $48.79 per hour.For more on how to snag physician assistant jobs:How to Write a Perfect Physician Assistant Resume (Examples Included)5. Dental HygienistDental hygienists are the ones who often do much of the heavy lifting at your dental appointments, working directly with patients to evaluate signs of dental disease, clean teeth, apply treatments, take x-rays, educate patients on good dental care (even though you swear you’re flossing every day), and assist dentists with procedures. This is a field expected to grow m uch faster than average over the next year.What you’ll need: Dental hygienists typically hold an associate’s degree from an accredited dental program. All states require dental hygienists to be licensed, so be sure to know your own state’s requirements for licensure.How much they make: According to the BLS, nurse practitioners make a median annual salary of $72,910, or $35.05 per hour.For more on how to snag dental hygienist jobs:What You Need to Know About Being a Dental Hygienist6. OptometristIf messy bodily functions aren’t your thing, you might want to consider a career as an optometrist. Optometrists focus on patients’ eyesight, and their duties include evaluating eyesight issues, testing for eye diseases, prescribing medicine, determining the need for glasses or other corrective eyewear, performing treatments, and evaluating patients for vision-related signs of serious diseases that can affect eyesight (like diabetes).What you’ll need: Optometrists need to complete a Doctor of Optometry (OD) program, which typically takes four years to complete (on top of an undergraduate bachelor’s degree). All states require optometrists to be licensed, so be sure to know your own state’s requirements.How much they make: According to the BLS, nurse practitioners make a median annual salary of $106,140, or $51.03 per hour.For more on how to snag optometrist jobs:11 High-Paying Jobs with High SatisfactionNo Medical Degree? No Problem for These Five Healthcare Jobs7. Physical Therapy AssistantPhysical therapy assistants work with patients under the direction of a physical therapist, helping patients recover from illness or injury. Their duties typically include helping patients move according to a prescribed treatment plan, observing patients, recording patient progress and data, massaging or stretching patients’ muscles, and helping patients use devices and equipment (like walkers or crutches) to move.What yo u’ll need: Physical therapy assistants need to have an associate’s degree from an accredited allied health program. All states require physical therapy assistants to be licensed or certified, so be sure to know your own state’s requirements.How much they make: According to the BLS, nurse practitioners make a median annual salary of $45,290, or $21.77 per hour.For more on how to snag physical therapy assistant jobs:Job Spotlight: Physical Therapist Assistant (VIDEO)9 High-Growth Careers in Healthcare Support8. EMT/ParamedicThese first responders are the ones you want near you in a crisis- able to act calmly and help sick or injured people no matter what’s going on around them. Emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics respond to emergency calls and are responsible for assessing a patient’s condition immediately, providing emergency medical care as necessary, preparing to move the patient to a medical facility, transporting patients safely in an ambulance or other emergency vehicle, communicating patient conditions to other medical staff, keeping records of the patient’s condition and treatment, and using and maintaining emergency medical equipment. An EMT or paramedic’s cases may range from serious accidents or emergencies to basic first aid.What you’ll need: EMTs and paramedics need to complete an accredited medical training program. All states require emergency medical personnel to be licensed or certified, so be sure to know your own state’s requirements.How much they make: According to the BLS, nurse practitioners make a median annual salary of $32,670, or $15.71 per hour.For more on how to snag EMT/paramedic jobs:10 Jobs Where You Can Be a Hero9 top jobs to pursue if you’re bilingualWhat You Need to Know About Becoming a ParamedicThe best jobs you can work during the graveyard shiftIf you’re looking for a field that is unlikely to face a downturn anytime soon, then 2018 could be the year to start looking seriously at a career in health care. Many of the fastest-growing opportunities require specific education and training programs, but if you’re not ready to make that commitment, there are lots of good opportunities for building medical experience and kicking off a challenging, fulfilling career in the health care industry.

Public relation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Public relation - Essay Example ns having democratically oriented cultures and governments; rather, it could be argued that the historic affinity between democracy and capitalism fosters the greater use of public relations practice in capitalistic economic systems while one could submit the corollary proposition that symmetrical practice of public relations inevitably will encourage nondemocratic nations to become more democratic’. The power of public relations to influence the opinion of the public even in severe issues like the political system of a particular state can be sometimes a threat for the market especially in cases where the targeted opinion has been formulated and imposed after a severe pressure from the party that will gain significant profit both directly or indirectly. However, in many cases public relations can lead to positive outcomes. For this reason, Levy (2002, 34) stated that ‘PR power used early can not only reduce the consequences of human error and frailty but also help create positives -- more business, a better legislative climate and improved standing with the media -- via mass media coverage on social service activities; PR can make advertising claims more credible, and give the claims more impact, because when the mass media tell scores of millions that something is so, the ads that follow are not only more trusted but more interesting’. As an example to the above assumptions, the case of Wal – Mart is presented by the above researcher in an effort to support the credibility of his statements. More specifically, the research made in the area has revealed the existence of a case where public relations led to an increase of the performance of the company involved. As Levy found ‘Wal-Mart has increased its sal es of high school class rings -- at 2,800 stores and online -- by including "how to buy" information in news releases; the stories make potential customers feel more comfortable about buying (Levy, 2002, 34). From a similar point of view it has been

Balance Training in Recreational Gym Users Essay

Balance Training in Recreational Gym Users - Essay Example Questionnaires are used to provide information on demographics and participation in balance activity within a gym setting. Questionnaires are a cost-effective form of the survey, easy to analyze, non-confrontational and a familiar format for participants to complete. They are a good way of obtaining data with reduced bias (Walonick 2004). They have been used previously to ascertain balance training participation and behavior both as an isolated activity (McInnes 2004) and also as part of the multi-modal regimen (Resnick 2000). They are also effective for the measurement of variables such as motivation, barriers to, and promoters of balance exercise (Kline 2000). The convenience of the setting of the gym and the availability of participants already predisposed to regular exercise informs the choice of venue at which to conduct the survey. Biases such as difficulty with transport or aversion to exercise, generally, are reduced by the said choice of venue. In the absence of sampling frames and population lists, 120 recreational gym users were approached in an effort to provide a representative sample of gym users. All participants who took part in the survey were gym users, male and female, aged 20-80 years. Participants are surveyed from this age range as literature has shown the benefits in reduction of injury rates and falls from balance exercise in the young and elderly ( see for example Handall 2001, Hong 2000). Each respondent had been a member of the gym for more than 12 months and reported attendance of once a week or more. The absence of population lists and sampling frames means it is not possible to determine whether the gender difference (or similarities) is a reflection of the gym user population. A minimum of 85 questionnaires was completed to produce a power calculation of greater than 80% in relation to the aims of the study, as specified by Altman,1991.  

The love that Dorothea feels for Randall, and the love Tony Kytes feels for Milly Essay Example for Free

The love that Dorothea feels for Randall, and the love Tony Kytes feels for Milly Essay After reading the short stories The Unexpected by Kate Chopin and Tony Kytes, the Arch Deceiver by Thomas Hardy, how far would you agree with this statement? The Unexpected is the tale of Randall and Dorothea, a passionate relationship driven apart by an unfortunate illness. The second story Tony Kytes, the Arch-Deceiver is a story of a man in love with three different women for three different reasons. The Unexpected is a tale of an intense relationship between Randall and Dorothea. Due to be married Randall, for a brief absence, left his Dorothea and the author describes the parting as bitter: the enforced separation.too cruel an ordeal to bear, The goodbye dragged with lingering kisses and signs, showing just how much the parting hurt More kisses and more clinging till the last wrench came. Unfortunately near the end of the month of which Randall was to return, filled with Daily letters impassioned and interminable, he was struck ill and delayed for yet another month. During all this the author describes the waiting for Dorothea as torture but even though she wanted to be at Randalls side she knew her parents would never permit such a thing as it was frowned upon for an unmarried man and a woman to be alone together not chaperoned, even for an engaged couple. Letters come from Randall telling Dorothea that he is obliged by his doctors to travel south before winter sets in but would first revisit his home town. Randall is very much in love with Dorothea calling her his dearest one to his heart and Craving her lips. Dorothea misses Randall a lot reading his letters until they were in tatters and then gazing for hours upon his portrait which showed him as an almost perfect specimen of youthful health, strength and manly beauty. Randall had written to her to tell her he altered greatly in appearance and even wrote that he would hardly recognize him. She waited with baited breath and anticipation filled her body until the moment came when the meeting actually proceeded, she could never have been prepared for the dramatic change in his appearance. He was a mere shadow of who he once was and Dorotheas feelings for him began to change she stared at him in wonder and mistrust rather than fear. What hideous transformation had he undergone? shows how much she hated the new look he had. Dorothea cant bear to have Randall touch her shes repulsed by how he now looks. The use of the vocabulary shuddering, shrinking, shriveling, describes how she felt her love for Randall die within her. They talked for a while (or rather Randall talked) and he insisted they marry at once in fear he would not recover from his illness, We must not put it off Dorothea. Let the marriage be at once. Dorothea was not so keen on this idea and she made attempts to pull away claiming she would be a hindrance and in her heart she was saying Never, never, never Randall had another reason to marry Dorothea Im quite-almost sure I shall get well; but the strongest of us cannot count upon life. If worse should come I want you to have all I possess; what fortune I have must be yours, and marriage will make my wish secure. This shows that Randall loves Dorothea and only wishes to make her future is financially secure incase he cannot be with her. But Dorotheas refuel saying she be a hindrance shows she didnt love Randall for his money; she is also quite stifled by his proposal. After a last coughing fit Randall is taken away by his attendant Dorothea watches him leave without a word. She was glad no one was present to compel her to speak, she didnt want people to make her change her mind as she thinks about this problem, shes embarrassed to speak and would have had to lie. Dorothea mounts her bike as if fleeing from death himself shows how much she needed to get away to be free from the people that would ask her of the wedding to come, seemingly borne on by come force other than mechanical-some unwanted energy- a sudden impulse that lightened her eyes. She rides through unfamiliar country and the road becomes rough and unfrequented and she doesnt stop until shes sure she is alone with just nature surrounding her. She never spoke a word after bidding him good-by: but now she seemed disposed to make confidants and the extract ends by saying Never she whispered, Not for all his thousands! Never, never! Not for millions! Dorothea is most defidently not interested in Randalls money but the relationship was based on looks rather than personality as so were many relationships during that time. The second title Tony Kytes, the Arch-Deceiver by Thomas Hardy, the title gives the reader an instant impression of the kind of man Tony is, a deceiver. Hes not described by how handsome he is, like Randall is during the first extract, it concentrates more on his charm and personality. Tony is engaged to Milly Richards, who is described as a nice, light, tender little thing. Oh his way driving home one Saturday after being at market with his father he saw waiting for him Unity Sallet, a handsome girl, one of the women hed been very tender toward before getting engaged to Milly. The words one of the women indicates that there was more than just one hed been quite friendly with and gives the reader an impression that he likes to have lots of women. As soon as Tony drives by her in his wagon she asks My dear Tony, will you give me a lift home? Tony replies That I will darling, you dont suppose I could refuse ee? This gives the reader an impression that Tony may still have feelings for Unity. Unity obviously considers herself to be better than Molly when she is talking to Tony, I should have made ee a finer wife, and a more loving one too. Tony appears weak as she talks to him asking if he did not think her pretty. He let his eyes light upon her for a long while. In fact, I never knowed you was so pretty before! But when she asks if she is prettier than Milly he does not reply as over the hedge past turning he sees the feather he knew well- the feather in Millys hat. Tony persuades Unity to hide in the back of the wagon Now dearest Unity, will ye, to avoid all unpleasantness, which I know ye cant bear any more than I, will ye lie down in the back of the wagon till Milly has passed? Tony knows that its wrong for him to be seen with another woman rather than his fiancà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ in public. When Tony sees Milly she does not ask for a ride. Tony lies saying he thought she was going to see her mother not waiting for him. They talked until they reached a house and who is looking out the window but Hannah Jolliver, another young beauty of the place at that time, and the first woman Tony had fallen in love with. Described as much more dashing girl than Milly Richards, thought Tony had not thought of her late. Tony then persuades Milly to hide in the back of the wagon, the other side to Unity I see a young woman a-looking out of window, who I think many accost me. The fact is Milly, she ha a notion that I was wishing to marry her, and since shes discovered to marry another, and a prettier than she. I rather afeard of her temper if she sees us together. I dont mind to oblige you, Tony, Milly said though she didnt care much about doing it, she crept under the seat. Hannah appears to be quiet curt Well, arent you going to be civil enough to ask me to ride home with you? The more Tony looked at Hannah while he was driving the more he like her, till he couldnt for the life of him think why he had ever said a word about marriage to Milly or Unity while Hannah Jolliver was in question. Youve settled it with Milly by this time I suppose? Hannah said and Tony talks quietly N-no, not exactly. He speaks quietly as not to be overheard. Hannah asks if he likes Milly more than her and if he asked her she wouldnt say no. Tony was won over by the pretty face and he whispered very softly to her I havent quite promised her, and I think I can get out of it and ask you that question you speak off. Unfortunately Hannah shouted very loud clapping her hands Throw over Milly-all to marry me! There was an angry, spiteful squeak and afterward a long moan, as if somethings heart had broken. This shows that it most probably was Milly and that she really did care for Tony. Tony sees his father in the field calling him, handing the reins to Hannah he finds his father with a stern look. It looks to me as if Mr. Kytes does not particularly like Hannah and doesnt want his son causing a scandal. Tony ends up confessing to his father that both Unity and Milly are also in the wagon and he asks his father for advice. Whatever of em did not ask to ride with thee? His father tells him. But Tony objects. Stick to Milly, shes the best. His father advice before warning Tony to take the reins from Hannah has the horse begins at a brisk walking pace. Milly becomes restless after hearing Tony and Hannah talking and she spies another womans foot, Unitys foot. Both women rage in whisper of how disgraceful it is for the other to be hiding in a young mans wagon. I am engaged to be married to him, and havent I a right to be here? What right has you, I should like to know? What has he been promising you? A pretty lot of nonsense, I expect! But what Tony says to other women is all mere wind, and no concern to me! Milly says getting louder, this shows she doesnt believe anything that Tony says to other women is true, its lies and doesnt matter to her. She really does love him. Hes going to have Hannah, and not you, nor me either; I could hear that. Unity says. At the sound of the voices rising Hannah lets go of the reins and the horse walks off turning to quick at the hill, the wheels went up on the bank and the wagon tips on its side. Tony comes running frightened and breathless and was relieved to see that none of his darlings was hurt but for a few scratches from the brambles, he cares for all three girls and likes them all for different reasons. Hes scared to find them all arguing He would have kissed them all round and square as a man could but they were talking too much to let him. First Tony says he wants Hannah to be his. Hannahs father was coming up behind them and Hannah was crying worse than ever. My daughter is not willing, sir! says Mr. Jolliver hot and strong Be you willing, Hannah? I ask ye to have spirit enough to refuse him, if yer virtue is left to ee and you run no risk. Mr. Jolliver clearly dislikes Tony, Hannah refuses partly because of her father and too partly in a tantrum because of her discovery. Little did I think when I was so soft with him just now that I was talking to such a false deceiver False deceiver hence the actual title of the book. Second he asks Unity to marry him and she snaps at him and walks off following the Jollivers footsteps, hoping that Tony might follow her. Finally he asked Milly, the last left and the one he was actual engaged to, if she would marry him claiming it do seem as if fate had ordained that it should be you and I, or nobody. Losing all semblance of what had been is how Dorothea phrases her emotions; this appears to be a common theme throughout both extracts, In other words the fickleness of love. In both stories the love is lost in different ways, but this love however was based on appearance rather than true love. In my opinion in the first extract Randall and Dorothea have a passionate relationship until there forced to separate and Randall become ill. The relationship isnt based on money as Dorothea refused to stay with him Never, she whispered not for all his thousands! Never, never! Not for millions! Its true that Randall changed in appearance but if Dorothea had really truly loved him she would never has left him no matter what he looked like when he was ill. But if it were reversed would Randall have still loved Dorothea if her looks had changed. If it were true love it would not matter what they looked like but to Dorothea it certainly did and so I believe it is mere infatuation rather than true love. With Tony Kytes, he seems to like all three girls for three different reasons, he cant have just one he wants them all and hes confused about who he should choose he knows that its wrong but he does it anyway, and to me he seems to see the women as objects rather than actual living breathing people. Overall it most diffidently seems to be infatuation rather than true love.

Islamic Science in the Medieval Era Essay -- History, Middle, Medieval

There are many terms used to describe the period after the fall of Rome and before the Renaissance, three main terms being the Middle, Medieval, and Dark Ages. In general, these terms are used interchangeably, but are these fair substitutions? In recent years the term â€Å"Dark Ages† is becoming less and less acceptable as a phrase which describes the span of years it is meant to refer to. The use of the term â€Å"dark† implies a period of stagnation, which is becoming a questionable concept. In particular, the span of time referred to in this paper is 530-1452 BCE, with specific attention paid to the scientific discoveries and innovations rather than art or literature. These dates are significant because in 529 the Academy and Lyceum in Athens were shutdown by the Byzantine emperor, thus ending the Greek intellectual influence. The date of 1453 is chosen because many Greek texts arrived in Europe in 1453 after the fall of Constantinople at the hands of the Turks, the reby reviving the struggling European scientific fields (Bunch 93). This essay will show that the medieval period was not a so-called â€Å"dark age† because of scientific innovation in the Islamic world, and is only referred to as such because of the popular bias in the West of focusing on Europe. In order to make this clear, firstly, two objections to this proposition will be analyzed and clearly refuted. Following these counter arguments, the main weight of historical facts and events in the identification and explanation of Islamic scientific innovation will be presented, showing the inaccuracy of referring to the medieval period as dark. Finally, I will show that the misleading perception of the medieval era as stagnant is due to the modern bias for the superiority of Western... ...ime period in a positive scientific light. The distinction between modern and medieval science was described as medieval science being more theoretical in nature and modern being of the more applied variety. Through the further presentation of the plethora of Islamic scientists, covering fields as diverse as astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and physics it has been shown, without a doubt, that significant scientific contributions were made in this period. Finally, the source of this misconception was exposed through the common accidental perception of the past as a European narrative. History can easily be focused around Europe, and to do so produces a view of the medieval era being stagnant. However, when one looks at the greater global picture, it is clear that the Islamic world more than makes up for this lull in innovation, successfully brightening the â€Å"Dark Age†.

Aqa Food Anthology Essay

Compare two texts from the Anthology, which present different views about what we should eat. Text 9 is a newspaper article by John Torode on ‘Why we should all eat red meat’ that vibrantly explores the issue of eating red meat and with a ‘meat lover’ perspective fighting a passionate argument against the ‘bad boy of British culture’ reputation meat has. John Torode is a well-known celebrity chef and his picture endorses the article with a sense of knowledge and character smiling for ‘the culmination of his love of beef’. This article is written to reach out to the general public, more so to the health conscious and the skeptics to persuade and guide through to a new way of thinking towards eating red meat and food in general. A very similar purpose is seen throughout text 11, the Vegetarian Society websites ‘Seven simple steps to going- and staying- vegetarian’ which aim to guide prospective vegetarians to the ultimatum of ‘you are vegetarian’ through the use of enabling and reassuring lexis. In text 11 the text is clearly set out into seven steps that are structured to coincide, following an order to which a structured plan flows like a timeline- building up confidence and experience to the reader with the desired effect of easing them in to the direction of becoming vegetarians. This is almost like an instruction manual and by the text being set in steps it is easy for the reader to digest. In comparison the structure of text 9 does not use bullet points but instead is presented in prose, which allows for story telling. Even though the texts are structured differently they are both still informative, instructive and possibly persuasive. Language techniques are chosen carefully to create these types of texts. For instance, Torode uses narrative and inclusive language. Torode begins by using first person pronouns: â€Å"When I first moved†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in his anecdote of his experiences with meat, this creates a personal, colloquial effect almost as if he is revealing himself to you making him more likeable and warm, and this is consistent throughout the text as he carries on telling us how he’d â€Å"been raised on the stuff† making him seem like a ‘down to earth’ guy who the reader can connect with. Later on in the article Torode employs inclusive language: â€Å"Why? Because we eat too much†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , in this example Torode also uses rhetoric possibly with the purpose of persuading as it makes the reader think and is a transition to his argument to why this is true. To end the article Torode slips back into the more personal first person narration much like the formalities of a conversation. There is a change of direction in the text from the anecdotal and friendly tone to where he gets serious and then back to very personal and reassuring- this is all formed to be persuasive as the personal address is comforting and the serious facts are used to further persuade the reader. The â€Å"Seven Steps† lack some of the fore mentioned techniques. What can be seen instead is a third person narrative throughout the article, thus making it sound less personal but more instructive and informative. The writer uses a brisk selection of lexis making the sentences and whole body of text shorter than text 9. Even though this text is significantly shorter it still manages to come across as concerned and helpful: â€Å"or borrow one from your local library†, here its almost like a whisper as if the voice is matched to someone friendly doing you a favor. So even though text 11 is not as colloquial and expressive as text 9 it still uses language in a way that makes it seem slightly informal, neutral and relaxed for the effect of seeming reassuring and therefore persuasive. For example the personal caption under the picture of the woman also uses first person pronoun â€Å"I gave up meat†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and even uses informal language such as ‘veggie’ to seem relatable and also down to earth- just like Torode is trying to sound. This is seen in both texts as a technique to warm to the reader and draw their interest. In text 9 we see a consistent use of expressive lexis which displays passion from the narrator as he tells us ‘we ate platters of it’ and ‘I loved it’. He tells us about â€Å"my love affair with beef† using an array of adjectives (â€Å"large, smoky, well marbled join of beef†) and alliteration (â€Å"succulent steak†) to entice the readers imagination and glorify meat in support of his argument of â€Å"Why we should all eat red meat†. Combined with the use of  hyperballys and negative exaggeration (â€Å"cholesterol overdose†) when speaking of the opposing argument it radiates a consistent sense of passion backed up by authoritative facts. All in all creating a very impressive, persuasive argument. How the Vegetarian Society’s ‘Seven simple steps’ does try to persuade and guide the reader is quite different from the ‘why we should all eat red meat’ article in terms of language use. As it is a step-by-step guide it doesn’t include a personal story or emotive language like in Torodes article. Instead it uses imperatives and suggestions, (â€Å"try something new†) in every step and modal verbs throughout in a simplistic manner. Perhaps because it doesn’t need to be as persuasive since it is aimed at the already prospective vegetarian and therefore it is not opinionated or overly patronizing in any way. The effect of this is that a calm tone is created and each step simply guides the reader- the persuasion is much more subtle. Whilst language is chosen to include and instruct it is also chosen to discriminate against the opposition to eliminate possible doubts and reassure the reader, this is used in both texts. In Torode’s article he declares, â€Å"Uninformed customers still worry that†¦Ã¢â‚¬  here it mocks those who worry about BSE and what it might do. A superior stance is taken here in order to persuade. In text 11 it is strikingly similar as it tells the reader â€Å"don’t be put off by†¦ ill-informed scare stories† from â€Å"people who know very little about their own health†. Both of these bias declaratives are used to- once again- effectively comfort and assure the reader. Although not so inclusively as text 9, text 11 uses celebrity endorsement in the form of a picture of â€Å"Sir Paul McCartney† a ‘musician and vegetarian society patron’ almost like a figure head that is encouragement for readers to think that it is more acceptable to follow the views of what we should eat according to them because these famous people do. The rhetorical question posed by Sir Paul apparently, captioned below the picture is a touch to make the reader think, the words sound wise and are placed there to enliven such thoughts to the reader. This is also seen in text 9 towards the end of the article when Torode very personally tells us â€Å"My family eats†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚  which he makes very personal even telling us his children’s names. Torode is using himself as a figure head to the views on ‘what we should eat’ as after all he is this celebrity chef and if it is good enough for his family- it should be good for us? In conclusion the texts argue completely different views on what we should eat but the sought effect on the reader is very similar and this is why there are similarities in the way the texts both try to persuade. They are both different types of texts and therefore the language, tone and techniques vary- text 9 uses a more personal and complex approach in the form of a personal narrative to persuade the reader and create an impressive argument, whilst text 9 is a much more simplistic and subtle informative text. They are both consistently persuasive and lead to the final purpose- of leading, encouraging and informing the reader through a set of steps or a structured narrative to a new view of what we as the reader should eat. Even though Text 9 is more opinionated both texts are still biased arguments with mainly the purpose of persuasion. I think both texts are very suited to their purpose and although look and are different they interestingly use language for a very similar purpose.

Central Processing Unit and Memory Location

MICROPROCESSOR 8085 †¢ Reference Book: – Ramesh S. Goankar, â€Å"Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications with 8085†, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall †¢ Week 1 – Basic Concept and Ideas about Microprocessor. †¢ Week 2 – Architecture of 8085 †¢ Week 3 – Addressing Modes and Instruction set of 8085 †¢ Week 4 – Interrupts of 8085 †¢ Week 5 onwards – Peripherals. Basic Concepts of Microprocessors †¢ Differences between: – Microcomputer – a computer with a microprocessor as its CPU. Includes memory, I/O etc. Microprocessor – silicon chip which includes ALU, register circuits & control circuits – Microcontroller – silicon chip which includes microprocessor, memory & I/O in a single package. What is a Microprocessor? †¢ The word comes from the combination micro and processor. – Processor means a device that processes whatever. In this context proces sor means a device that processes numbers, specifically binary numbers, 0’s and 1’s. †¢ To process means to manipulate. It is a general term that describes all manipulation. Again in this content, it means to perform certain operations on the numbers that depend on the microprocessor’s design.What about micro? †¢ Micro is a new addition. – In the late 1960’s, processors were built using discrete elements. †¢ These devices performed the required operation, but were too large and too slow. – In the early 1970’s the microchip was invented. All of the components that made up the processor were now placed on a single piece of silicon. The size became several thousand times smaller and the speed became several hundred times faster. The â€Å"Micro†Processor was born. Was there ever a â€Å"mini†processor? †¢ No. – It went directly from discrete elements to a single chip. However, omparing todayâ€⠄¢s microprocessors to the ones built in the early 1970’s you find an extreme increase in the amount of integration. †¢ So, What is a microprocessor? Definition of the Microprocessor The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in numbers, performs on them arithmetic or logical operations according to the program stored in memory and then produces other numbers as a result. Definition (Contd. ) †¢ Lets expand each of the underlined words: – Programmable device: The microprocessor can perform different sets of operations on the data it receives depending on the sequence of instructions supplied in the given program.By changing the program, the microprocessor manipulates the data in different ways. – Instructions: Each microprocessor is designed to execute a specific group of operations. This group of operations is called an instruction set. This instruction set defines what the microprocessor can and cannot do. Definition (Contd. ) – Ta kes in: The data that the microprocessor manipulates must come from somewhere. †¢ It comes from what is called â€Å"input devices†. †¢ These are devices that bring data into the system from the outside world. †¢ These represent devices such as a keyboard, a mouse, switches, and the like.Definition (Contd. ) – Numbers: The microprocessor has a very narrow view on life. It only understands binary numbers. A binary digit is called a bit (which comes from binary digit). The microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of bits together. This group of bits is called a â€Å"word†. The number of bits in a Microprocessor’s word, is a measure of its â€Å"abilities†. Definition (Contd. ) – Words, Bytes, etc. †¢ The earliest microprocessor (the Intel 8088 and Motorola’s 6800) recognized 8-bit words. – They processed information 8-bits at a time. That’s why they are called â€Å"8-bit processors†.They can handle large numbers, but in order to process these numbers, they broke them into 8-bit pieces and processed each group of 8-bits separately. †¢ Later microprocessors (8086 and 68000) were designed with 16-bit words. – A group of 8-bits were referred to as a â€Å"half-word† or â€Å"byte†. – A group of 4 bits is called a â€Å"nibble†. – Also, 32 bit groups were given the name â€Å"long word†. †¢ Today, all processors manipulate at least 32 bits at a time and there exists microprocessors that can process 64, 80, 128 bits Definition (Contd. ) – Arithmetic and Logic Operations: Every microprocessor has arithmetic operations such as add and subtract as part of its instruction set. – Most microprocessors will have operations such as multiply and divide. – Some of the newer ones will have complex operations such as square root. †¢ In addition, microprocessors have logic operations as well. Such as AND, OR, XOR, shift left, shift right, etc. †¢ Again, the number and types of operations define the microprocessor’s instruction set and depends on the specific microprocessor. Definition (Contd. ) – Stored in memory : †¢ First, what is memory? – Memory is the location where information is kept while not in current use. Memory is a collection of storage devices. Usually, each storage device holds one bit. Also, in most kinds of memory, these storage devices are grouped into groups of 8. These 8 storage locations can only be accessed together. So, one can only read or write in terms of bytes to and form memory. – Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold. It is measured in Kilos, Megas and lately Gigas. A Kilo in computer language is 210 =1024. So, a KB (KiloByte) is 1024 bytes. Mega is 1024 Kilos and Giga is 1024 Mega. Definition (Contd. ) – Stored in memory: †¢ When a program is entered into a computer, it is st ored in memory.Then as the microprocessor starts to execute the instructions, it brings the instructions from memory one at a time. †¢ Memory is also used to hold the data. – The microprocessor reads (brings in) the data from memory when it needs it and writes (stores) the results into memory when it is done. Definition (Contd. ) – Produces: For the user to see the result of the execution of the program, the results must be presented in a human readable form. †¢ The results must be presented on an output device. †¢ This can be the monitor, a paper from the printer, a simple LED or many other forms. A Microprocessor-based systemFrom the above description, we can draw the following block diagram to represent a microprocessor-based system: Input Output Memory Inside The Microprocessor †¢ Internally, the microprocessor is made up of 3 main units. – The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) – The Control Unit. – An array of registers for holdi ng data while it is being manipulated. Organization of a microprocessorbased system †¢ Let’s expand the picture a bit. I/O Input / Output ALU Register Array System Bus Memory ROM RAM Control Memory †¢ Memory stores information such as instructions and data in binary format (0 and 1).It provides this information to the microprocessor whenever it is needed. †¢ Usually, there is a memory â€Å"sub-system† in a microprocessor-based system. This sub-system includes: – The registers inside the microprocessor – Read Only Memory (ROM) †¢ used to store information that does not change. – Random Access Memory (RAM) (also known as Read/Write Memory). †¢ used to store information supplied by the user. Such as programs and data. Memory Map and Addresses †¢ The memory map is a picture representation of the address range and shows where the different memory chips are located within the address range. 000 0000 EPROM 3FFF 4400 Address Range of EPROM Chip Address Range RAM 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 Address Range of 1st RAM Chip 5FFF 6000 Address Range of 2nd RAM Chip 8FFF 9000 A3FF A400 Address Range of 3rd RAM Chip RAM 4 F7FF FFFF Address Range of 4th RAM Chip Memory †¢ To execute a program: – the user enters its instructions in binary format into the memory. – The microprocessor then reads these instructions and whatever data is needed from memory, executes the instructions and places the results either in memory or produces it on an output device. The three cycle instruction execution model To execute a program, the microprocessor â€Å"reads† each instruction from memory, â€Å"interprets† it, then â€Å"executes† it. †¢ To use the right names for the cycles: – The microprocessor fetches each instruction, – decodes it, – Then executes it. †¢ This sequence is continued until all instructions are performed. Machine Language †¢ The number of bits tha t form the â€Å"word† of a microprocessor is fixed for that particular processor. – These bits define a maximum number of combinations. †¢ For example an 8-bit microprocessor can have at most 28 = 256 different combinations. However, in most microprocessors, not all of these combinations are used. – Certain patterns are chosen and assigned specific meanings. – Each of these patterns forms an instruction for the microprocessor. – The complete set of patterns makes up the microprocessor’s machine language. The 8085 Machine Language †¢ The 8085 (from Intel) is an 8-bit microprocessor. – The 8085 uses a total of 246 bit patterns to form its instruction set. – These 246 patterns represent only 74 instructions. †¢ The reason for the difference is that some (actually most) instructions have multiple different formats. Because it is very difficult to enter the bit patterns correctly, they are usually entered in hexadeci mal instead of binary. †¢ For example, the combination 0011 1100 which translates into â€Å"increment the number in the register called the accumulator†, is usually entered as 3C. Assembly Language †¢ Entering the instructions using hexadecimal is quite easier than entering the binary combinations. – However, it still is difficult to understand what a program written in hexadecimal does. – So, each company defines a symbolic code for the instructions. – These codes are called â€Å"mnemonics†. The mnemonic for each instruction is usually a group of letters that suggest the operation performed. Assembly Language †¢ Using the same example from before, – 00111100 translates to 3C in hexadecimal (OPCODE) – Its mnemonic is: â€Å"INR A†. – INR stands for â€Å"increment register† and A is short for accumulator. †¢ Another example is: 1000 0000, – Which translates to 80 in hexadecimal. â€⠀œ Its mnemonic is â€Å"ADD B†. – â€Å"Add register B to the accumulator and keep the result in the accumulator†. Assembly Language †¢ It is important to remember that a machine language and its associated assembly language are completely machine dependent. In other words, they are not transferable from one microprocessor to a different one. †¢ For example, Motorolla has an 8-bit microprocessor called the 6800. – The 8085 machine language is very different from that of the 6800. So is the assembly language. – A program written for the 8085 cannot be executed on the 6800 and vice versa. â€Å"Assembling† The Program †¢ How does assembly language get translated into machine language? – There are two ways: – 1st there is â€Å"hand assembly†. †¢ The programmer translates each assembly language instruction into its equivalent hexadecimal code (machine language).Then the hexadecimal code is entered into memory. – The other possibility is a program called an â€Å"assembler†, which does the translation automatically. 8085 Microprocessor Architecture †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 8-bit general purpose  µp Capable of addressing 64 k of memory Has 40 pins Requires +5 v power supply Can operate with 3 MHz clock 8085 upward compatible Pins Power Supply: +5 V Frequency Generator is connected to those pins Input/Output/ Memory Read Write Multiplexed Address Data Bus Address latch Enable Address Bus †¢ System Bus – wires connecting memory & I/O to microprocessor – Address Bus Unidirectional †¢ Identifying peripheral or memory location – Data Bus †¢ Bidirectional †¢ Transferring data – Control Bus †¢ Synchronization signals †¢ Timing signals †¢ Control signal Architecture of Intel 8085 Microprocessor Intel 8085 Microprocessor †¢ Microprocessor consists of: – – – – – Control unit: control microprocessor operations. ALU: performs data processing function. Registers: provide storage internal to CPU. Interrupts Internal data bus The ALU †¢ In addition to the arithmetic & logic circuits, the ALU includes the accumulator, which is part of every arithmetic & logic operation. Also, the ALU includes a temporary register used for holding data temporarily during the execution of the operation. This temporary register is not accessible by the programmer. †¢ Registers – General Purpose Registers †¢ B, C, D, E, H & L (8 bit registers) †¢ Can be used singly †¢ Or can be used as 16 bit register pairs – BC, DE, HL †¢ H & L can be used as a data pointer (holds memory address) – Special Purpose Registers †¢ Accumulator (8 bit register) – Store 8 bit data – Store the result of an operation – Store 8 bit data during I/O transfer Accumulator Flags B C D E H L Program Counter Stack Pointer Address 6 8 Data †¢ Flag Register – 8 bit register – shows the status of the microprocessor before/after an operation – S (sign flag), Z (zero flag), AC (auxillary carry flag), P (parity flag) & CY (carry flag) D7 S D6 Z D5 X D4 AC D3 X D2 P D1 X D0 CY – Sign Flag †¢ Used for indicating the sign of the data in the accumulator †¢ The sign flag is set if negative (1 – negative) †¢ The sign flag is reset if positive (0 –positive) †¢ Zero Flag – Is set if result obtained after an operation is 0 – Is set following an increment or decrement operation of that register 10110011 + 01001101 ————–1 00000000 †¢ Carry Flag Is set if there is a carry or borrow from arithmetic operation 1011 0101 + 0110 1100 ————–Carry 1 0010 0001 1011 0101 – 1100 1100 ————–Borrow 1 1110 1001 †¢ Auxillary Carry Flag – Is set if there is a carry out of bit 3 †¢ Parity Flag – Is set if parity is even – Is cleared if parity is odd The Internal Architecture †¢ We have already discussed the general purpose registers, the Accumulator, and the flags. †¢ The Program Counter (PC) – This is a register that is used to control the sequencing of the execution of instructions. – This register always holds the address of the next instruction. Since it holds an address, it must be 16 bits wide. The Internal Architecture †¢ The Stack pointer – The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register that is used to point into memory. – The memory this register points to is a special area called the stack. – The stack is an area of memory used to hold data that will be retreived soon. – The stack is usually accessed in a Last In First Out (LIFO) fashion. Non Programmable Registers †¢ Instruction Register & Decoder – Inst ruction is stored in IR after fetched by processor – Decoder decodes instruction in IR Internal Clock generator – 3. 125 MHz internally – 6. 5 MHz externally The Address and Data Busses †¢ The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 – A15 which are unidirectional. †¢ The other 8 address bits are multiplexed (time shared) with the 8 data bits. – So, the bits AD0 – AD7 are bi-directional and serve as A0 – A7 and D0 – D7 at the same time. †¢ During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry the address bits during the early part, then during the late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits. – In order to separate the address from the data, we can use a latch to save the value before the function of the bits changes. Demultiplexing AD7-AD0 From the above description, it becomes obvious that the AD7– AD0 lines are serving a dual purpose and that they need to be demultiplexed to get all the information. – The high order bits of the address remain on the bus for three clock periods. However, the low order bits remain for only one clock period and they would be lost if they are not saved externally. Also, notice that the low order bits of the address disappear when they are needed most. – To make sure we have the entire address for the full three clock cycles, we will use an external latch to save the value of AD7– AD0 when it is carrying the address bits.We use the ALE signal to enable this latch. Demultiplexing AD7-AD0 8085 A15-A8 ALE AD7-AD0 Latch A7- A0 D7- D0 – Given that ALE operates as a pulse during T1, we will be able to latch the address. Then when ALE goes low, the address is saved and the AD7– AD0 lines can be used for their purpose as the bi-directional data lines. Demultiplexing the Bus AD7 – AD0 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The high order address is placed on the address bus and hold for 3 clk periods, The low o rder address is lost after the first clk period, this address needs to be hold however we need to use latch The address AD7 – AD0 is connected as inputs to the latch 74LS373.The ALE signal is connected to the enable (G) pin of the latch and the OC – Output control – of the latch is grounded The Overall Picture †¢ Putting all of the concepts together, we get: A15- A10 Chip Selection Circuit 8085 A15-A8 ALE AD7-AD0 Latch CS A9- A0 A7- A0 1K Byte Memory Chip WR RD IO/M D7- D0 RD WR Introduction to 8085 Instructions The 8085 Instructions – Since the 8085 is an 8-bit device it can have up to 28 (256) instructions. †¢ However, the 8085 only uses 246 combinations that represent a total of 74 instructions. – Most of the instructions have more than one format. These instructions can be grouped into five different groups: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Data Transfer Operations Arithmetic Operations Logic Operations Branch Operations Machin e Control Operations Instruction and Data Formats †¢ Each instruction has two parts. – The first part is the task or operation to be performed. †¢ This part is called the â€Å"opcode† (operation code). – The second part is the data to be operated on †¢ Called the â€Å"operand†. Data Transfer Operations – These operations simply COPY the data from the source to the destination. – MOV, MVI, LDA, and STA – They transfer: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Data between registers.Data Byte to a register or memory location. Data between a memory location and a register. Data between an IO Device and the accumulator. – The data in the source is not changed. The LXI instruction †¢ The 8085 provides an instruction to place the 16-bit data into the register pair in one step. †¢ LXI Rp, (Load eXtended Immediate) – The instruction LXI B 4000H will place the 16-bit number 4000 into the register pair B, C. â₠¬ ¢ The upper two digits are placed in the 1st register of the pair and the lower two digits in the 2nd . B 40 00 C LXI B 40 00H The Memory â€Å"Register† Most of the instructions of the 8085 can use a memory location in place of a register. – The memory location will become the â€Å"memory† register M. †¢ MOV M B – copy the data from register B into a memory location. – Which memory location? †¢ The memory location is identified by the contents of the HL register pair. – The 16-bit contents of the HL register pair are treated as a 16-bit address and used to identify the memory location. Using the Other Register Pairs – There is also an instruction for moving data from memory to the accumulator without disturbing the contents of the H and L register. †¢ LDAX Rp (LoaD Accumulator eXtended) Copy the 8-bit contents of the memory location identified by the Rp register pair into the Accumulator. – This instruction o nly uses the BC or DE pair. – It does not accept the HL pair. Indirect Addressing Mode †¢ Using data in memory directly (without loading first into a Microprocessor’s register) is called Indirect Addressing. †¢ Indirect addressing uses the data in a register pair as a 16-bit address to identify the memory location being accessed. – The HL register pair is always used in conjunction with the memory register â€Å"M†. – The BC and DE register pairs can be used to load data into the Accumultor using indirect addressing.Arithmetic Operations – Addition (ADD, ADI): – Any 8-bit number. – The contents of a register. – The contents of a memory location. †¢ Can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the result is stored in the accumulator. – Subtraction (SUB, SUI): – Any 8-bit number – The contents of a register – The contents of a memory location †¢ Can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator. The result is stored in the accumulator. Arithmetic Operations Related to Memory †¢ These instructions perform an arithmetic operation using the contents of a memory location while they are still in memory. ADD – SUB – INR M M M / DCR M †¢ Add the contents of M to the Accumulator †¢ Sub the contents of M from the Accumulator †¢ Increment/decrement the contents of the memory location in place. – All of these use the contents of the HL register pair to identify the memory location being used. Arithmetic Operations – Increment (INR) and Decrement (DCR): †¢ The 8-bit contents of any memory location or any register can be directly incremented or decremented by 1. †¢ No need to disturb the contents of the accumulator. Manipulating Addresses †¢ Now that we have a 16-bit address in a register pair, how do we manipulate it? It is possible to manipulate a 16-bit address stored in a register pair as one entity using some special instructions. †¢ INX Rp †¢ DCX Rp (Increment the 16-bit number in the register pair) (Decrement the 16-bit number in the register pair) – The register pair is incremented or decremented as one entity. No need to worry about a carry from the lower 8-bits to the upper. It is taken care of automatically. Logic Operations †¢ These instructions perform logic operations on the contents of the accumulator. – ANA, ANI, ORA, ORI, XRA and XRI †¢ Source: Accumulator and – An 8-bit number – The contents of a register – The contents of a memory location Destination: Accumulator ANA R/M ANI # ORA ORI XRA XRI R/M # R/M # AND Accumulator With Reg/Mem AND Accumulator With an 8-bit number OR Accumulator With Reg/Mem OR Accumulator With an 8-bit number XOR Accumulator With Reg/Mem XOR Accumulator With an 8-bit number Logic Operations – Complement: †¢ 1’s complement of the contents of the accumulato r. CMA No operand Additional Logic Operations †¢ Rotate – Rotate the contents of the accumulator one position to the left or right. – RLC – RAL – RRC – RAR Rotate the accumulator left. Bit 7 goes to bit 0 AND the Carry flag. Rotate the accumulator left through the carry.Bit 7 goes to the carry and carry goes to bit 0. Rotate the accumulator right. Bit 0 goes to bit 7 AND the Carry flag. Rotate the accumulator right through the carry. Bit 0 goes to the carry and carry goes to bit 7. RLC vs. RLA Carry Flag †¢ RLC 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Accumulator Carry Flag †¢ RAL 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Accumulator Logical Operations †¢ Compare †¢ Compare the contents of a register or memory location with the contents of the accumulator. – CMP R/M Compare the contents of the register or memory location to the contents of the accumulator. Compare the 8-bit number to the contents of the accumulator. CPI # †¢ The compare instruction sets the flag s (Z, Cy, and S). †¢ The compare is done using an internal subtraction that does not change the contents of the accumulator. A – (R / M / #) Branch Operations †¢ Two types: – Unconditional branch. †¢ Go to a new location no matter what. – Conditional branch. †¢ Go to a new location if the condition is true. Unconditional Branch – JMP Address †¢ Jump to the address specified (Go to). – CALL Address †¢ Jump to the address specified but treat it as a subroutine. – RET †¢ Return from a subroutine. – The addresses supplied to all branch operations must be 16-bits.Conditional Branch – Go to new location if a specified condition is met. †¢ JZ Address (Jump on Zero) – Go to address specified if the Zero flag is set. †¢ JNZ Address (Jump on NOT Zero) – Go to address specified if the Zero flag is not set. †¢ JC Address (Jump on Carry) – Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is set. †¢ JNC Address (Jump on No Carry) – Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is not set. †¢ JP †¢ JM Address (Jump on Plus) Address (Jump on Minus) – Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is not set – Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is set.Machine Control – HLT †¢ Stop executing the program. – NOP †¢ No operation †¢ Exactly as it says, do nothing. †¢ Usually used for delay or to replace instructions during debugging. Operand Types †¢ There are different ways for specifying the operand: – There may not be an operand (implied operand) †¢ CMA – The operand may be an 8-bit number (immediate data) †¢ ADI 4FH – The operand may be an internal register (register) †¢ SUB B – The operand may be a 16-bit address (memory address) †¢ LDA 4000H Instruction Size †¢ Depending on the operand type, the instruction may have diff erent sizes.It will occupy a different number of memory bytes. – Typically, all instructions occupy one byte only. – The exception is any instruction that contains immediate data or a memory address. †¢ Instructions that include immediate data use two bytes. – One for the opcode and the other for the 8-bit data. †¢ Instructions that include a memory address occupy three bytes. – One for the opcode, and the other two for the 16-bit address. Instruction with Immediate Date †¢ Operation: Load an 8-bit number into the accumulator. – MVI A, 32 †¢ Operation: MVI A †¢ Operand: The number 32 †¢ Binary Code: 0011 1110 3E 1st byte. 011 0010 32 2nd byte. Instruction with a Memory Address †¢ Operation: go to address 2085. – Instruction: JMP 2085 †¢ Opcode: JMP †¢ Operand: 2085 †¢ Binary code: 1100 0011 C3 1000 0101 85 0010 0000 20 1st byte. 2nd byte 3rd byte Addressing Modes †¢ The microprocessor ha s different ways of specifying the data for the instruction. These are called â€Å"addressing modes†. †¢ The 8085 has four addressing modes: – – – – Implied Immediate Direct Indirect CMA MVI B, 45 LDA 4000 LDAX B †¢ Load the accumulator with the contents of the memory location whose address is stored in the register pair BC). Data Formats In an 8-bit microprocessor, data can be represented in one of four formats: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ASCII BCD Signed Integer Unsigned Integer. – It is important to recognize that the microprocessor deals with 0’s and 1’s. †¢ It deals with values as strings of bits. †¢ It is the job of the user to add a meaning to these strings. Data Formats †¢ Assume the accumulator contains the following value: 0100 0001. – There are four ways of reading this value: †¢ It is an unsigned integer expressed in binary, the equivalent decimal number would be 65. †¢ It is a number expressed in BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) format. That would make it, 41. It is an ASCII representation of a letter. That would make it the letter A. †¢ It is a string of 0’s and 1’s where the 0th and the 6th bits are set to 1 while all other bits are set to 0. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Counters & Time Delays Counters †¢ A loop counter is set up by loading a register with a certain value †¢ Then using the DCR (to decrement) and INR (to increment) the contents of the register are updated. †¢ A loop is set up with a conditional jump instruction that loops back or not depending on whether the count has reached the termination count.Counters †¢ The operation of a loop counter can be described using the following flowchart. Initialize Body of loop Update the count No Is this Final Count? Yes Sample ALP for implementing a loop Using DCR instruction MVI C, 15H LOOP DCR C JNZ LOOP Using a Regist er Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ Using a single register, one can repeat a loop for a maximum count of 255 times. †¢ It is possible to increase this count by using a register pair for the loop counter instead of the single register. – A minor problem arises in how to test for the final count since DCX and INX do not modify the flags. However, if the loop is looking for when the count becomes zero, we can use a small trick by ORing the two registers in the pair and then checking the zero flag. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ The following is an example of a loop set up with a register pair as the loop counter. LXI B, 1000H LOOP DCX B MOV A, C ORA B JNZ LOOP Delays †¢ It was shown in Chapter 2 that each instruction passes through different combinations of Fetch, Memory Read, and Memory Write cycles. †¢ Knowing the combinations of cycles, one can calculate how long such an instruction would require to complete. The table in Appendix F of the book contains a column with the title B/M/T. – B for Number of Bytes – M for Number of Machine Cycles – T for Number of T-State. Delays †¢ Knowing how many T-States an instruction requires, and keeping in mind that a T-State is one clock cycle long, we can calculate the time using the following formula: Delay = No. of T-States / Frequency †¢ For example a â€Å"MVI† instruction uses 7 T-States. Therefore, if the Microprocessor is running at 2 MHz, the instruction would require 3. 5  µSeconds to complete. Delay loops †¢ We can use a loop to produce a certain amount of time delay in a program. The following is an example of a delay loop: MVI C, FFH LOOP DCR C JNZ LOOP 7 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States †¢ The first instruction initializes the loop counter and is executed only once requiring only 7 T-States. †¢ The following two instructions form a loop that requires 14 T-States to execute and is repeated 255 times until C becomes 0. Del ay Loops (Contd. ) †¢ We need to keep in mind though that in the last iteration of the loop, the JNZ instruction will fail and require only 7 T-States rather than the 10. †¢ Therefore, we must deduct 3 T-States from the total delay to get an accurate delay calculation. To calculate the delay, we use the following formula: Tdelay = TO + TL – Tdelay = total delay – TO = delay outside the loop – TL = delay of the loop †¢ TO is the sum of all delays outside the loop. Delay Loops (Contd. ) †¢ Using these formulas, we can calculate the time delay for the previous example: †¢ TO = 7 T-States – Delay of the MVI instruction †¢ TL = (14 X 255) – 3 = 3567 T-States – 14 T-States for the 2 instructions repeated 255 times (FF16 = 25510) reduced by the 3 T-States for the final JNZ. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ Using a single register, one can repeat a loop for a maximum count of 255 times. It is possible to increase this count by using a register pair for the loop counter instead of the single register. – A minor problem arises in how to test for the final count since DCX and INX do not modify the flags. – However, if the loop is looking for when the count becomes zero, we can use a small trick by ORing the two registers in the pair and then checking the zero flag. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ The following is an example of a delay loop set up with a register pair as the loop counter. LXI B, 1000H LOOP DCX B MOV A, C ORA B JNZ LOOP 10 T-States 6 T-States 4 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-StatesUsing a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ Using the same formula from before, we can calculate: †¢ TO = 10 T-States – The delay for the LXI instruction †¢ TL = (24 X 4096) – 3 = 98301 T- States – 24 T-States for the 4 instructions in the loop repeated 4096 times (100016 = 409610) reduced by the 3 TStates for the JNZ in the last iterat ion. Nested Loops †¢ Nested loops can be easily setup in Assembly language by using two registers for the two loop counters and updating the right register in the right loop. – In the figure, the body of loop2 can be before or after loop1.Initialize loop 2 Body of loop 2 Initialize loop 1 Body of loop 1 Update the count1 No Is this Final Count? Yes Update the count 2 No Is this Final Count? Yes Nested Loops for Delay †¢ Instead (or in conjunction with) Register Pairs, a nested loop structure can be used to increase the total delay produced. MVI B, 10H LOOP2 MVI C, FFH LOOP1 DCR C JNZ LOOP1 DCR B JNZ LOOP2 7 T-States 7 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States Delay Calculation of Nested Loops †¢ The calculation remains the same except that it the formula must be applied recursively to each loop. Start with the inner loop, then plug that delay in the calculation of the outer loop. †¢ Delay of inner loop – TO1 = 7 T-States †¢ MVI C, FFH instruction – TL1 = (255 X 14) – 3 = 3567 T-States †¢ 14 T-States for the DCR C and JNZ instructions repeated 255 Delay Calculation of Nested Loops †¢ Delay of outer loop – TO2 = 7 T-States †¢ MVI B, 10H instruction – TL1 = (16 X (14 + 3574)) – 3 = 57405 T-States †¢ 14 T-States for the DCR B and JNZ instructions and 3574 T-States for loop1 repeated 16 times (1016 = 1610) minus 3 for the final JNZ. – TDelay = 7 + 57405 = 57412 T-States †¢ Total Delay – TDelay = 57412 X 0. 5  µSec = 28. 06 mSec Increasing the delay †¢ The delay can be further increased by using register pairs for each of the loop counters in the nested loops setup. †¢ It can also be increased by adding dummy instructions (like NOP) in the body of the loop. Timing Diagram Representation of Various Control signals generated during Execution of an Instruction. Following Buses and Control Signals must be shown in a Timing Diagram: â € ¢Higher Order Address Bus. †¢Lower Address/Data bus †¢ALE †¢RD †¢WR †¢IO/M Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,B Corresponding Coding: A000h 78 Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,B Corresponding Coding: A000h 78OFC 8085 Memory Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,B 00h T1 T2 T3 T4 A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) Corresponding Coding: A000h 78 78h ALE RD OFC WR 8085 Memory IO/M Op-code fetch Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MVI A,45h Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h 3E 45 Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MVI A,45h OFC MEMR Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h 3E 45 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) 00h 3Eh 01h 45h DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) Instruction: A000h MVI A,45h Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h 3E 45 WR RD ALEIO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h LXI A,FO45h Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h A002h 21 45 F0 Timing Dia gram Instruction: A000h LXI A,FO45h OFC MEMR MEMR Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h A002h 21 45 F0 8085 Memory Timing Diagram Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Memory Read Cycle T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 A0h A0h A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) 00h 21h 01h 45h 02h F0h DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,M Corresponding Coding: A000h 7E Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,MOFC MEMR Corresponding Coding: A000h 7E 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h Content Of Reg H A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) Instruction: A000h MOV A,M Corresponding Coding: A000h 7E 00h 7Eh L Reg Content Of M DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV M,A Corresponding Coding: A000h 77 Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV M,A OFC MEMW Corresponding Coding: A000h 77 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h Content Of Reg H A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus)Instruction: A000h MOV M,A Corresponding Coding: A000h 77 00h 7Eh L Reg Content of Reg A DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Write Cycle Chapter 9 Stack and Subroutines The Stack †¢ The stack is an area of memory identified by the programmer for temporary storage of information. †¢ The stack is a LIFO structure. – Last In First Out. †¢ The stack normally grows backwards into memory. – In other words, the programmer defines the bottom of the stack and the stack grows up into reducing address range. The Stack grows backwards into memory Memory Bottom of the Stack The Stack Given that the stack grows backwards into memory, it is customary to place the bottom of the stack at the end of memory to keep it as far away from user programs as possible. †¢ In the 8085, the stack is defined by setting the SP (Stack Pointer) register. LXI SP, FFFFH †¢ This sets the Stack Pointer to location FFFFH (end of memory for the 8085). Saving Information on the Stack †¢ Information is saved on the stack by PUSHing it on. – It is retrieved from the stack by POPing it off. †¢ The 8085 provides two instructions: PUSH and POP for storing information on the stack and retrieving it back. – Both PUSH and POP work with register pairs ONLY.The PUSH Instruction †¢ PUSH B – Decrement SP – Copy the contents of register B to the memory location pointed to by SP – Decrement BSP C F3 12 – Copy the contents of register C to the memory location pointed to by SP F3 FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 12 SP The POP Instruction †¢ POP D – Copy the contents of the memory location pointed to by the SP to register E – Increment SP – Copy the contents of the memory location D E F3 12 pointed to by the SP to register D – Increment SP F3 SP FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 12 Operation of the Stack †¢ During pushing, the stack operates in a â€Å"decrement then store† style. The stack pointer is decremented first, then the information is placed on the stack. †¢ During poping, the stack operates in a â€Å"use then increment† style. – The information is retrieved from the top of the the stack and then the pointer is incremented. †¢ The SP pointer always points to â€Å"the top of the stack†. LIFO †¢ The order of PUSHs and POPs must be opposite of each other in order to retrieve information back into its original location. PUSH B PUSH D †¦ POP D POP B The PSW Register Pair †¢ The 8085 recognizes one additional register pair called the PSW (Program Status Word). This register pair is made up of the Accumulator and the Flags registers. †¢ It is possible to push the PSW onto the stack, do whatever operations are needed, then POP it off of the stack. – The result is that the contents of the Accumulator and the status of the Flags are ret urned to what they were before the operations were executed. Subroutines †¢ A subroutine is a group of instructions that will be used repeatedly in different locations of the program. – Rather than repeat the same instructions several times, they can be grouped into a subroutine that is called from the different locations. In Assembly language, a subroutine can exist anywhere in the code. – However, it is customary to place subroutines separately from the main program. Subroutines †¢ The 8085 has two instructions for dealing with subroutines. – The CALL instruction is used to redirect program execution to the subroutine. – The RTE insutruction is used to return the execution to the calling routine. The CALL Instruction †¢ CALL 4000H – Push the address of the instruction immediately following the CALL onto the stack 2000 CALL 4000 2003 counter – Load the program PC 2 0 0 3with the 16-bit address supplied with the CALL instructi on. FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 3 20 SP The RTE Instruction †¢ RTE – Retrieve the return address from the top of the stack – Load the program counter with the return address. 2003 PC 4014 4015 †¦ RTE FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 03 20 SP Cautions †¢ The CALL instruction places the return address at the two memory locations immediately before where the Stack Pointer is pointing. – You must set the SP correctly BEFORE using the CALL instruction. †¢ The RTE instruction takes the contents of the two memory locations at the top of the stack and uses these as the return address. – Do not modify the stack pointer in a subroutine. You will loose the return address.Passing Data to a Subroutine †¢ In Assembly Language data is passed to a subroutine through registers. – The data is stored in one of the registers by the calling program and the subroutine uses the value from the register. †¢ The other possibility is to use agreed upon mem ory locations. – The calling program stores the data in the memory location and the subroutine retrieves the data from the location and uses it. Call by Reference and Call by Value †¢ If the subroutine performs operations on the contents of the registers, then these modifications will be transferred back to the calling program upon returning from a subroutine. Call by reference †¢ If this is not desired, the subroutine should PUSH all the registers it needs on the stack on entry and POP them on return. – The original values are restored before execution returns to the calling program. Cautions with PUSH and POP †¢ PUSH and POP should be used in opposite order. †¢ There has to be as many POP’s as there are PUSH’s. – If not, the RET statement will pick up the wrong information from the top of the stack and the program will fail. †¢ It is not advisable to place PUSH or POP inside a loop. Conditional CALL and RTE Instructions à ¢â‚¬ ¢ The 8085 supports conditional CALL and conditional RTE instructions. The same conditions used with conditional JUMP instructions can be used. – – – – – CC, call subroutine if Carry flag is set. CNC, call subroutine if Carry flag is not set RC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is set RNC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is not set Etc. A Proper Subroutine †¢ According to Software Engineering practices, a proper subroutine: – Is only entered with a CALL and exited with an RTE – Has a single entry point †¢ Do not use a CALL statement to jump into different points of the same subroutine. – Has a single exit point †¢ There should be one return statement from any subroutine. Following these rules, there should not be any confusion with PUSH and POP usage. The Design and Operation of Memory Memory in a microprocessor system is where information (data and instructions) is kept. It can be classified into t wo main types: ? ? Main memory (RAM and ROM) Storage memory (Disks , CD ROMs, etc. ) The simple view of RAM is that it is made up of registers that are made up of flip-flops (or memory elements). ? ROM on the other hand uses diodes instead of the flip-flops to permanently hold the information. The number of flip-flops in a â€Å"memory register† determines the size of the memory word. Accessing Information in Memory For the microprocessor to access (Read or Write) information in memory (RAM or ROM), it needs to do the following: Select the right memory chip (using part of the address bus). Identify the memory location (using the rest of the address bus). Access the data (using the data bus). 2 Tri-State Buffers An important circuit element that is used extensively in memory. This buffer is a logic circuit that has three states: Logic 0, logic1, and high impedance. When this circuit is in high impedance mode it looks as if it is disconnected from the output completely.The Outp ut is Low The Output is High High Impedance 3 The Tri-State Buffer This circuit has two inputs and one output. The first input behaves like the normal input for the circuit. The second input is an â€Å"enable†. ? ? If it is set high, the output follows the proper circuit behavior. If it is set low, the output looks like a wire connected to nothing. Output Input OR Input Output Enable Enable 4 The Basic Memory Element The basic memory element is similar to a D latch. This latch has an input where the data comes in. It has an enable input and an output on which data comes out. Data Input D Data Output QEnable EN 5 The Basic Memory Element However, this is not safe. Data is always present on the input and the output is always set to the contents of the latch. To avoid this, tri-state buffers are added at the input and output of the latch. Data Input D Data Output Q RD Enable EN WR 6 The Basic Memory Element The WR signal controls the input buffer. The bar over WR means that thi s is an active low signal. So, if WR is 0 the input data reaches the latch input. If WR is 1 the input of the latch looks like a wire connected to nothing. The RD signal controls the output in a similar manner. A Memory â€Å"Register† If we take four of these latches and connect them together, we would have a 4-bit memory register I0 WR I1 I2 I3 D Q EN EN RD D Q EN D Q EN D Q EN O0 O1 O2 O3 8 A group of memory registers D0 o D1 o o D2 o D3 WR D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q Expanding on this scheme to add more memory registers we get the diagram to the right. EN D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q o o o o RD D0 D1 D2 9 D3 Externally Initiated Operations External devices can initiate (start) one of the 4 following operations: Reset ?All operations are stopped and the program counter is reset to 0000. The microprocessor’s operations are interrupted and the microprocessor executes what is called a â€Å"service routine†. Th is routine â€Å"handles† the interrupt, (perform the necessary operations). Then the microprocessor returns to its previous operations and continues. Interrupt ? ? 10 A group of Memory Registers If we represent each memory location (Register) as a block we get the following I0 I1 I2 I3 WR EN0 EN1 EN2 EN3 RD O0 Input Buffers Memory Reg. 0 Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. 3 Output Buffers O1 O2 O3 11The Design of a Memory Chip Using the RD and WR controls we can determine the direction of flow either into or out of memory. Then using the appropriate Enable input we enable an individual memory register. What we have just designed is a memory with 4 locations and each location has 4 elements (bits). This memory would be called 4 X 4 [Number of location X number of bits per location]. 12 The Enable Inputs How do we produce these enable line? Since we can never have more than one of these enables active at the same time, we can have them encoded to reduce the number of line s coming into the chip.These encoded lines are the address lines for memory. 13 The Design of a Memory Chip So, the previous diagram would now look like the following: I I I I 0 1 2 3 WR A d d r e s s D e c o d e r Input Buffers Memory Reg. 0 Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. 3 Output Buffers A1 A0 RD O0 O1 O2 O3 14 The Design of a Memory Chip Since we have tri-state buffers on both the inputs and outputs of the flip flops, we can actually use one set of pins only. Input Buffers WR A1 A0 A D The chip Memory Reg. now look likeDthis: would 0 d e 0 D0 A1 A0 D1 D2 D3 d r e s s c o d e r Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. Output Buffers D1 D2 D3 RD RD WR 15 The steps of writing into Memory What happens when the programmer issues the STA instruction? The microprocessor would turn on the WR control (WR = 0) and turn off the RD control (RD = 1). The address is applied to the address decoder which generates a single Enable signal to turn on only one of the memory registers. The da ta is then applied on the data lines and it is stored into the enabled register. 16 Dimensions of Memory Memory is usually measured by two numbers: its length and its width (Length X Width). ? ? The length is the total number of locations.The width is the number of bits in each location. The length (total number of locations) is a function of the number of address lines. # of memory locations = 2( # of address lines) 210 = 1024 locations (1K) ? So, a memory chip with 10 address lines would have Looking at it from the other side, a memory chip with 4K locations would need ? Log2 4096=12 address lines 17 The 8085 and Memory The 8085 has 16 address lines. That means it can address 216 = 64K memory locations. Then it will need 1 memory chip with 64 k locations, or 2 chips with 32 K in each, or 4 with 16 K each or 16 of the 4 K chips, etc. ow would we use these address lines to control the multiple chips? 18 Chip Select Usually, each memory chip has a CS (Chip Select) input. The chip wil l only work if an active signal is applied on that input. To allow the use of multiple chips in the make up of memory, we need to use a number of the address lines for the purpose of â€Å"chip selection†. These address lines are decoded to generate the 2n necessary CS inputs for the memory chips to be used. 19 Chip Selection Example Assume that we need to build a memory system made up of 4 of the 4 X 4 memory chips we designed earlier.We will need to use 2 inputs and a decoder to identify which chip will be used at what time. The resulting design would now look like the one on the following slide. 20 Chip Selection Example RD WR D0 D1 RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS A0 A1 A2 A3 2 X4 Decoder 21 Memory Map and Addresses The memory map is a picture representation of the address range and shows where the different memory chips are located within the address range. 0000 0000 EPROM 3FFF 4400 Address Range of EPROM Chip Address Range RAM 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 Ad dress Range of 1st RAM Chip 5FFF 6000 Address Range of 2nd RAM Chip FFF 9000 A3FF A400 Address Range of 3rd RAM Chip RAM 4 F7FF FFFF Address Range of 4th RAM Chip 22 Address Range of a Memory Chip The address range of a particular chip is the list of all addresses that are mapped to the chip. An example for the address range and its relationship to the memory chips would be the Post Office Boxes in the post office. †¢ Each box has its unique number that is assigned sequentially. (memory locations) †¢ The boxes are grouped into groups. (memory chips) †¢ The first box in a group has the number immediately after the last box in the previous group. 23 Address Range of a Memory ChipThe above example can be modified slightly to make it closer to our discussion on memory. †¢ Let’s say that this post office has only 1000 boxes. †¢ Let’s also say that these are grouped into 10 groups of 100 boxes each. Boxes 0000 to 0099 are in group 0, boxes 0100 to 01 99 are in group 1 and so on. We can look at the box number as if it is made up of two pieces: †¢ The group number and the box’s index within the group. †¢ So, box number 436 is the 36th box in the 4th group. The upper digit of the box number identifies the group and the lower two digits identify the box within the group. 24The 8085 and Address Ranges The 8085 has 16 address lines. So, it can address a total of 64K memory locations. If we use memory chips with 1K locations each, then we will need 64 such chips. The 1K memory chip needs 10 address lines to uniquely identify the 1K locations. (log21024 = 10) That leaves 6 address lines which is the exact number needed for selecting between the 64 different chips (log264 = 6). 25 The 8085 and Address Ranges Now, we can break up the 16-bit address of the 8085 into two pieces: A15 A14 A13 A12 A11 A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 Chip Selection Location Selection within the ChipDepending on the combination on the address lines A15 – A10 , the address range of the specified chip is determined. 26 Chip Select Example A chip that uses the combination A15 – A10 = 001000 would have addresses that range from 2000H to 23FFH. Keep in mind that the 10 address lines on the chip gives a range of 00 0000 0000 to 11 1111 1111 or 000H to 3FFH for each of the chips. The memory chip in this example would require the following circuit on its chip select input: A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 14 A 15 CS 27 Chip Select Example If we change the above combination to the following: A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 14 A 15 CSNow the chip would have addresses ranging from: 2400 to 27FF. Changing the combination of the address bits connected to the chip select changes the address range for the memory chip. 28 Chip Select Example To illustrate this with a picture: ? ? in the first case, the memory chip occupies the piece of the memory map identified as before. In the second case, it occupies the piece identified as after. Before Af ter 0000 2000 23FF 2400 27FF 0000 FFFF FFFF 29 High-Order vs. Low-Order Address Lines The address lines from a microprocessor can be classified into two types: High-Order ? Low-Order ?